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C Programming Language Certified Associate (CLA)

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Interview Questions and Answers

Function pointers are pointers that store the address of a function. They allow you to pass functions as arguments to other functions, create callback functions, and implement dynamic dispatch.

Pointers to structures are used to access structure members indirectly. You declare a pointer to a structure using `struct StructureName *ptr;`. To access members of the structure through the pointer, you use the `->` operator (e.g., `ptr->member = value;`).

Debugging C programs involves using tools like `gdb` (GNU Debugger) or IDEs with debugging capabilities. Techniques include setting breakpoints, stepping through code, inspecting variables, and using print statements to track program flow. Memory leak detection tools like Valgrind are also essential.

Common memory management errors include memory leaks (forgetting to `free()` allocated memory), dangling pointers (using a pointer after the memory it points to has been freed), double freeing (freeing the same memory twice), and buffer overflows (writing beyond the bounds of allocated memory). Avoid these by carefully tracking memory allocations, setting pointers to NULL after freeing, and using tools like Valgrind to detect memory errors.

The `typedef` keyword is used to create an alias for an existing data type. This can improve code readability and maintainability. For example, `typedef int Age;` makes `Age` an alias for `int`.

The `==` operator is the equality operator. It compares two values and returns true (1) if they are equal, and false (0) otherwise. The `=` operator is the assignment operator. It assigns the value on the right-hand side to the variable on the left-hand side.

Bitwise operators operate on individual bits of integers. They include `&` (AND), `|` (OR), `^` (XOR), `~` (NOT), `<<` (left shift), and `>>` (right shift). They are used for tasks like setting or clearing specific bits, manipulating flags, and performing efficient calculations.

File I/O in C uses functions like `fopen()` to open a file (in read, write, or append mode). `fread()` and `fwrite()` read and write binary data, respectively. `fprintf()` and `fscanf()` are used for formatted text I/O. `fclose()` closes the file after use. Proper error handling after `fopen()` is crucial.

A `struct` is a collection of variables of different data types, stored in contiguous memory locations. A `union` is a collection of variables of different data types, but they share the same memory location. The size of a `union` is the size of its largest member.

Arguments are passed to a function either by value or by reference. In pass by value, a copy of the arguments value is passed to the function. Changes made to the argument inside the function do not affect the original variable. In pass by reference, the address of the argument is passed to the function using pointers. Changes made to the argument inside the function will affect the original variable.

Recursion is a programming technique where a function calls itself directly or indirectly. In C, recursion is implemented by having a function call itself until a base case is reached, which terminates the recursion. Each recursive call adds a new frame to the stack, so excessive recursion can lead to stack overflow.

Header files contain declarations of functions, variables, and macros that are used in multiple source files. They are necessary for code reusability and to avoid duplication of declarations. They are included using the `#include` directive.

Preprocessor directives are instructions to the C preprocessor, which runs before the compiler. Examples include `#include`, `#define`, `#ifdef`, `#ifndef`, `#else`, and `#endif`.

Error handling in C often involves checking the return values of functions and using error codes (e.g., returning -1 on failure). Common techniques include using `errno` and `perror()` to get more information about errors, and using assertions (`assert()`) for debugging.

`static` has different meanings depending on the context. For local variables within a function, it retains its value between function calls. At the file level, it limits the variables scope to that file. `const` means that the variables value cannot be changed after initialization.

Dynamic arrays are created using `malloc()` or `calloc()` to allocate memory at runtime. You then use pointers to access the elements of the array. You can resize the array using `realloc()`. Remember to `free()` the allocated memory when you are finished with it.

The fundamental data types in C are `int`, `float`, `double`, and `char`. They are declared using keywords like `int age;`, `float salary;`, `double pi;`, and `char grade;`.

`malloc()` allocates a block of memory of the specified size but doesnt initialize it. `calloc()` allocates a block of memory of the specified size and initializes all bytes to zero. `calloc()` also takes two arguments: the number of elements and the size of each element.

A pointer is a variable that stores the memory address of another variable. You use it by declaring it with `*` (e.g., `int *ptr;`). To get the address of a variable, use the `&` operator (e.g., `ptr = &age;`). To access the value at the address pointed to, use the `*` operator again (e.g., `*ptr = 30;`).

The storage classes in C are `auto`, `extern`, `static`, and `register`. `auto` (default for local variables) has a local scope and is stored in the stack. `extern` declares a variable defined elsewhere. `static` retains its value between function calls and has internal linkage if declared at the file level. `register` suggests storing the variable in a register (for faster access).

Break can appear only within the looping control and switch statement. The purpose of the break is to bring the control out from the blocks.

The four storage classes in C are declared in a block or program with the storage class specifiers, auto, register, extern, static.

Modular programming is a software design technique that emphasizes separating the functionality of a program into independent, interchangeable modules, such that each contains everything necessary to execute only one aspect of the desired functionality.

The syntax of a for-loop in C programming language is - for ( init; condition; increment ) { statement(s); }.

The C standard doesn't mandate any particular way of representing negative signed numbers. Negative signed integers are stored in what is called two's complement.

A pointer to a pointer is a type of multiple in direction, or a chain of pointers. It contains the address of a variable. In pointer to a pointer, the first pointer contains the address of the second pointer, which points to the location that contains the

The auto keyword declares automatic variables. For instance: auto int var1; This statement indicates var1 is a variable of storage class auto and type int.

Static variable is a variable that has been allocated \"statically\", meaning that its lifetime (or \"extent\") is the entire run of the program. The static variables are alive till the execution of the program. The default value of static variables is z

Pointers in C language are used in three different ways:

- To create dynamic data structures.

- To pass and handle variable parameters passed to functions.

- To access information stored in arrays.

A scope is a region of the program, and the scope of variables refers to the area of the program where the variables can be accessed after its declaration. In C every variable defined in scope.

Yes it is possible to write a program without main(). But it uses main() indirectly.

System Analysis is a method in which facts are gathered and interpreted, problems are defined and a system is decomposed into it's components. Design emphasizes a conceptual solution that fulfills the requirements, rather than it's implementation. Systems

The steps of the design process include: Identify the need, Research. Brainstorm. Develop possible solutions. Construct a prototype. Test and evaluate. Revisions. Completion.

State- This is a value on an objects attribute at a given time. Behavior- This defines the behavior of the object, and their reactions. Identity- An object has an identity characterizing it's very life. The identification allows any object to be identifie

They are abstraction, encapsulation, inheritance, and polymorphism.

An interaction model is a design model that ties an application together in such a way as to benefit it's target users conceptual models. This determines how all the artifacts and behavior that are part of an application interrelate in ways that represen

Aggregation means a relationship where the child can exist independently of the parent. Composition insinuates a relationship where the child can not exist independently of the parent.

Relate with a project you have done.

The data structure is a data collection, management and storage system that allows for easy access and alteration. More specifically, the data structure is the set of data values, the relationship between them and the functions or operations that can be a

In a linear data structure, the data elements are organized in a linear order where every element is connected to it's previous and next adjacent elements. For a non-linear data structure, the data elements are hierarchically connected.

Traversing - access each data item exactly once; Searching - is used to find the location of one or more data items that fulfill the condition; Inserting - is add new data items to the given list of data items; Deleting -  is to remove a particular data i

Algorithm - is a procedure for solving a problem, based on conducting a sequence of specified actions. A computer program can be viewed as an elaborate algorithm.

Greedy Algorithms - is algorithm that follows the problem-solving heuristic

The most fundamental types of algorithm are: Recursive Algorithms, Dynamic programming algorithm, Backtracking algorithm, Divide and Conquer Algorithm, Greedy Algorithm, Brute Force Algorithm.

Recursion is a method used to allow a function call it'self. This technique offers a way to break down complicated problems into simple problems that are easier to solve.

Explain specific instances with respect to the job JD.

Model–view–controller(MVC) is a software design pattern used for developing user interfaces that separate the related program logic into three interconnected elements. Each of these components is built to handle specific development aspects of an applicat

Explain specific instances with respect to the job JD.

(1) Choose the Right Technology when picking up a programming language, Database, Communication Channel.

(2) The ability to run multiple servers and databases as a distributed application over multiple time zones.

(3)Database backup, correcti

Object-oriented programming is a programming paradigm based on the concept of \"objects\", which can contain data, in the form of fields, and code, in the form of procedures. A feature of objects is that objects' own procedures can access and often modify

Most modern development processes can be described as agile. Other methodologies include waterfall, prototyping, iterative and incremental development, spiral development, rapid application development, and extreme programming.

Software Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a process used to design, develop and test high-quality software. Also referred to as the application development life-cycle.

Software testing is called the process or method of identifying errors in an application or system, such that the application works according to the requirement of end-users. It is an examination carried out to provide users the information on the quality

Explain specific instances with respect to the job JD.

A good software engineer is someone who is not only competent to write code but also competent to create, produce and ship useful software.

The primary aim of the code review is to ensure that the codebase overall product quality is maintained over time. It helps give a fresh set of eyes to identify bugs and simple coding errors. All of the tools and processes of code review are designed to t

Use a phased life-cycle plan, Continuous validation, Maintain product control, Use the latest programming practices, Maintain clear accountability for results.

Software engineering always requires a fair amount of teamwork. The code needs to be understood by designers, developers, other coders, testers, team members and the entire IT team.

Schedule, Quality, Cost, Stakeholder Satisfaction, Performance

A software project manager determines the project specifications, builds the project team, draws up a blueprint for the whole project outlining the scope and criteria of the project, clearly communicates the project goals to the team; allocates budget, an

The most common software sizing methodology has been counting the lines of code written in the application source. Another approach is to do Functional Size Measurement, to express the functionality size as a number by performing Function point analysis.

The major parts to project estimation are effort estimation, cost estimation, resource estimate. In estimation, there are many methods used as best practices in project management such as-Analogous estimation, Parametric estimation, Delphi process, 3 Poin

software configuration management (SCM) is the task of tracking and controlling changes in the software code, part of the larger cross-disciplinary field of configuration management. Whereas change management deals with identification, impact analysis, d

Basecamp, Teamwork Projects, ProofHub, Zoho Projects, Nifty, Trello, JIRA, Asana, Podio, etc.

A feasibility study is a study that takes into account all of the related factors of a project — including economic, technological, legal, and scheduling considerations — to assess the probability of completing the project.

Functional requirements are the specifications explicitly requested by the end-user as essential facilities the system should provide. Non-functional requirements are the quality constraints that the system must satisfy according to the project contract,

Pseudocode is an informal high-level explanation of the operating principle of a computer program. It uses the structural conventions of a normal programming language but is intended for human reading rather than machine reading.

Validation is the process of checking whether the specification captures the user's needs, while verification is the process of checking that the software meets the specification.

Different Types Of Software Testing - Unit Testing, Integration Testing, System Testing, Sanity Testing, Smoke Testing, Interface Testing, Regression Testing, Beta/Acceptance Testing.

Quality control can be described as part of quality management that is focused on fulfilling quality requirements. While quality assurance relates to how a process is performed or how a product is made.

Single Responsibility Principle (SRP), Open/Closed Principle (OCP), Liskov Substitution Principle (LSP), Interface Segregation Principle (ISP), Dependency Inversion Principle (DIP).